PDF《Overview of炉he燛xisting Mechanisms》

1815 by the Congress of Vienna, followed by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), established in

1865 under the name International Telegraph Union, which is now one of the key institutions for space governance. The result was better cross-border infrastructure and a much larger market for European industries, lead- ing to the Second Industrial Revolution. The most important generation of international organizations, led by the United States, came with the establishment of the Bretton Woods system in the aftermath of World War II, and included several financial organizations, including the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund (IMF), and the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), which evolved into the World Trade Organization (WTO)

17 in 1994. In addition, the United Nations was established in 1945, replacing the failed League of Nations. The United Nations had much greater success, since today it encompasses nearly all States. The next generation of international organizations came in the mid-1960s and started with the establishment of the International Telecommunications Satellite Organization (INTELSAT), an intergovernmental organization to share satellite telecommunications and television broadcasting. This generation was led by the United Nations and opened a new era of industrial growth, arising out of the emer- gence of transportation, communications, and information technologies. International organizations responded to the needs of the time, to enhance peace but also to facilitate economic development. Probably, it is time for a yet another gen- eration of international organizations, as both our activities in space and our depen- dence upon space technologies increase. Global governance is, however, more than just the sum of all international orga- nizations. It comprises an array of actors: the major international organizations (United Nations, WTO, IMF, World Bank, etc.);

quasi-formal intergovernmental gatherings (G7/8, the World Economic Forum, etc.);

international nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) (e.g., International Committee of the Red Cross);

and private associations (e.g., the International Chamber of Commerce). These global, regional, national, and local actors work in complex and partial cooperation to govern, and often micro-manage, specific areas of human activity. There is a growing complexity in the scope of all actors and the way in which they interact and interrelate [Wilkinson, 2002]. Indeed, global governance has grown and evolved into a myriad of sub-systems with various types of connections, from which a polycentric mode of governance emerges [Scholte, 2008;

Tepper, 2014]. As international law was initially the law made by and between independent States, global governance also had States at its core for the creation of the norms, rules, and institutions, as members of the institutions, and as the subjects of those rules and norms. Since the early days of global governance, it evolved, as did international law, to include non-State actors in all the above roles, mainly civil society and business actors. These non-State actors include sub-State entities, such as national NGOs, cor- porations, and even some individuals, as well as international entities, notably interna- tional NGOs, transnational corporations, and intergovernmental organizations. The rise of global governance, with its supranational norms, rules, and institu- tions, does not necessarily mean that States today are weaker and that there are limi- tationsontheiractivities.Instead,thefundamentalruleofsovereigntyininternational law still holds strong. In fact, there are also factors that have enlarged the power of States, from the increase in domestic legislation and regulation to the new opportu- nities that global governance has opened to them, such as in international trade and international cooperation on many issues. States that can successfully navigate global governance are stronger than ever. In the context of space, INTELSAT, the International Maritime Satellite Organization (INMARSAT), EUTELSA, the European Organization for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites (EUMETSAT), INTERSPUTNIK, and the Arab Satellite Communications Organization (Arabsat) have enabled States, many of which could not have ?produced 2.1? Introduction and Background